Official Development Assistance

Working Paper 207/2025: The Historical Constraints of Africa South-South Cooperation: 30 years of TICAD through the lenses of South-South-Triangular Cooperation

Abstract

Placing emphasis on the concepts of self-reliance and self-help, this paper contributes to the broad literature on South-South and Triangular cooperation, first, to understand its conceptual significance to south-south cooperation; second, to understand why from an historical perspective south-south cooperation has not advanced in Africa; and third, drawing on three decades of the Tokyo International Conference on African Development, to understand the extent of TICAD contribution to promoting Africa’s self-reliance, essential to ending Africa’s marginalization and exit aid dependency. Based on insights from cross-analysis OECD reports, TICAD documents, UN and OAU historical resolutions, and secondary literature, through a qualitative and chronological approach, roughly from 1960 to 2022, we find that the role of TICAD through SS-TrC not only has contributed to structural development changes in Africa, but also redefined the paradigm of development assistance based on country ownership and equal partnership, thus becoming part of the Global Agenda for Development.

Cite this Working Paper

Amakasu Raposo de Medeiros Carvalho, Pedro Miguel (2025). “The Historical Constraints of Africa South-South Cooperation: 30 years of TICAD through the lenses of South-South-Triangular Cooperation”. CEsA/ISEG Research – Documentos de trabalho nº 207/2025

Working Paper 206/2025: Multiplexing Corporate Power: Navigating corporate autonomy in the EU Global Gateway

Abstract

The EU’s Global Gateway initiative relies on corporations to achieve geoeconomic goals, creating structural dependence on actors with autonomous transformation capacity. By analyzing official documents and three flagship projects (Lobito Corridor (Angola), Dakar BRT (Senegal), and Lumut Maritime Industrial City (Malaysia)) I develop a “geoeconomic force multiplexing” framework explaining how corporations process public inputs across geographic, sectoral, temporal, and network dimensions. Four “multiplexer profiles” emerge from the interaction of leverage and patron dependence: autonomous (high leverage, low dependence), directed (high leverage, high dependence), bounded (low leverage, high dependence), and opportunistic (low leverage, low dependence). The EU faces inherent tension: channeling priorities through high-leverage corporations invites lower steerability, while more dependent actors lack transformative capacity. Delegating implementation to corporate actors creates path-dependent lock-ins that may redirect or undermine original objectives.

Cite this Working Paper

Pais Bernardo, Luís (2025). “Multiplexing Corporate Power: Navigating corporate autonomy in the EU Global Gateway”. CEsA/ISEG Research – Documentos de trabalho nº 206/2025

Working Paper 205/2025: Obstacles to US Pension Fund Investment in Africa

Abstract

African agency in geopolitical times: playing with EU and Chinese ontological security

Abstract

In 2021 the European Union (EU) launched Global Gateway (GG). This new €300 billion European strategy is intended to boost the EU’s involvement in areas such as transport infrastructure, green energy, and digitalisation in developing countries. The African continent is expected to benefit with half of the expected figures. Much of the debate in the past few years has attempted to dissect the (geo)political, financial and economic dimensions of GG from the perspective of Brussels and EU Member States’ policymakers. However, very little has been discussed on how African policymakers have perceived GG. This paper will thus focus on African agency in the context of GG and the broader framework of Africa–EU relations. Moreover, it will compare this agency with that which has been displayed in the past decade of relations between Africa and China. Drawing on an ontological security analytical framework, the paper seeks to understand the new dynamics and contestations of African agency in the continent’s relations with the EU and China that have been ignored in both mainstream and critical approaches to EU foreign policy studies.

Cite this Paper

Duggan, N., Haastrup, T., Hogan, J. J., Mah, L., & Bernardo, L. (2025). African agency in geopolitical times: playing with EU and Chinese ontological security. Third World Quarterly, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2025.2551134

Mundo Crítico No 12: Desafios actuais do financiamento

Abstract:

Over the past few months, we have been witnessing profound changes in what is known as Development Aid. The reduction of ODA by several countries, including the USA and the United Kingdom, is opening up new scenarios at a time when a more multipolar world vision is emerging—one that increasingly favours a “blended growth” model, where diverse types of financing and approaches combine the public and private sectors. Another element to consider is the growing importance of large-scale philanthropic actors in Development Cooperation. The “Conversa Imperfeita” that opens this edition of “Mundo Crítico”, bringing together Ana Fernandes and Ndongo Samba Sylla, reflects on the tensions running through this new ODA context, highlighting longstanding structural issues while also attempting to outline the new challenges posed by this present moment and the near future.

In the same vein, the contributions in this edition reflect on the so-called ODA crisis from various perspectives, following the evolution of this mechanism and moving towards an outlook capable of engaging with the emerging world order, as well as the financial implications that come with it. Alongside these more analytical texts, we have chosen to publish the Portuguese versions of pieces that point towards concrete proposals aimed at a fairer reform of resource allocation, and consequently, the distribution of wealth. To help foster alternative thinking, we also offer a reflection on the Participatory Budget in Uzbekistan, as a case study in development financing through public participation.

The “Modos de Ver” section features part of a report on the international e-waste trade, carried out in Ghana by journalists Paula Borges and Djibril Mandjam, the result of a journalism grant from an ACEP initiative in partnership with Eurodad. The same issue is at the heart of one of the “Narrativas”, while another provides an insider’s account of the drastic funding cuts from USAID.

The theme of the “Ecos Gráficos” section is the exploitation of creative labour. This edition concludes with a review of Carlos Lopes’s book The Self-Deception Trap.

Cite this Journal:

ACEP & CEsA (2025). “Desafios actuais do financiamento”. ISEG/CEsA – Centro de Estudos sobre África e Desenvolvimento. Revista Mundo Crítico nº 12 (Jul 2025). ISSN 2184-1926

A Opinião Pública e a Cooperação para o Desenvolvimento Portuguesa

Abstract:

Almost 20 years after the first public opinion poll on the role of Development Cooperation, particularly Portuguese Cooperation, we have launched a new study to find out what Portuguese society thinks about this sector, at a time when a new strategic cycle of Portuguese Cooperation is underway. In this sense, the Association for Cooperation Between Peoples (ACEP) proposed to the Centre for African and Development Studies of the Lisbon School of Economics and Management (CEsA/ISEG) and to the Department of Social Sciences and Territorial Policies of the University of Aveiro (DCSPT/UA) a process of updating knowledge about Portuguese public opinion, in order to provide a more reliable view of opinions in this area and better plan strategies for dialogue and public debate with different sectors of society, including national political decision-makers and journalists.

The Portuguese Cooperation Strategy 2030 highlights, among other things, the importance of communication with society and the visibility of the sector to allow for greater understanding and recognition of its role in the calculation of Portuguese public policies. In fact, in Portugal, Development Cooperation continues to occupy a residual space in the political debate, especially at the level of the Assembly of the Republic and the media, and there are still difficulties in approaching and working systematically with Portuguese MPs and journalists and in placing the issues of Development and International Cooperation in the media.

Over the last 20 years, International Development Cooperation has undergone profound changes, which Portuguese Cooperation has not been immune to. Although it is a policy about which there is little institutional debate at national level, it is a crucial sector in the way Portugal relates to the world, particularly with some of the countries with which it maintains strong bilateral relations, such as the PALOP and East Timor. This relationship does not only involve the State, but also involves a wide range of sectors, both public and private, for-profit and non-profit, approaching Development Cooperation in different ways and giving rise to different types of relationships.

This survey did not come about in a vacuum and is naturally not immune to the current international context, which is particularly adverse and poses additional challenges to Development Cooperation. However, this public policy has a unique role in promoting Development, peace and human rights. Current conflicts, in particular the wars in Gaza and Ukraine (which marked the return of war to Europe), the disrespect for and discredit of International Law and multilateralism, as well as the rise of populist discourse throughout the world and, particularly in Europe, are elements that characterise the environment in which Development Cooperation needs to continue to assert itself and strengthen itself as the noblest expression of the foreign policy of States and international institutions.

Cite this book:

ACEP & CEsA (2024). “A Opinião Pública e a Cooperação para o Desenvolvimento Portuguesa”. ISBN 978-989-8625-35-9

Mundo Crítico n.º 10: Desenvolvimento e paz em tempos de conflitos

Abstract:

In the face of growing polarisation and the proliferation of conflicts worldwide, it is imperative to reflect on the state of the world and seek collective solutions and pathways to peace. Development Cooperation can serve as a means of fostering dialogue and action, playing a role in the search for positive and constructive responses to promote peace and sustainable development on a global scale. However, as Sara De Simone and Pedro Rosa Mendes emphasise in the opening “imperfect conversation” of this issue, there are no one-size-fits-all solutions. It is crucial to involve all stakeholders — both formal and informal actors — in dialogue for peace and reconciliation, prioritising solutions derived from endogenous processes.

Current conflicts, especially those that are highly mediatised and have significant global repercussions, such as the war in Ukraine and the Middle East, have devastating consequences for affected populations and regional stability. Beyond these, prolonged tensions and conflicts in other parts of the world, particularly in African countries, also have destabilising effects at both regional and global levels.

In this tenth edition of Mundo Crítico – Journal of Development and Cooperation, we examine how development processes are influenced by war and latent conflicts. We ask whether “underdevelopment” is genuinely a threat or if a narrative has taken root, dividing the world into zones prone to violence on its periphery and zones of peace at its decision-making centres. As a cross-cutting theme, migration emerges, highlighting the increasing instrumentalisation of the phenomenon and concessions to far-right rhetoric, particularly within the European Union.

This edition also includes a reflection on the role of women in dialogue and action for building lasting peace, the future of fragile states —many of which are victims of climate change, the pandemic, and “proxy conflicts” reminiscent of the Cold War — and the role of cities in rural conflict zones, such as Pemba in Mozambique.

The photographic essay in this issue explores the walls (still) standing across different continents, from Brazil to the Middle East, accentuating the division of the world and the disparities in who has the right to move freely. Finally, in a more journalistic tone, we address water-related conflicts and the neglect of Africa by major global news organisations.

Cite this Journal:

ACEP & CEsA (2024). “Desenvolvimento e paz em tempos de conflitos”. ISEG/CEsA – Centro de Estudos sobre África e Desenvolvimento. Revista Mundo Crítico nº 10 (Jun 2024). ISSN 2184-1926.

Mundo Crítico n.º 9: Representações do mundo no mundo das representações

Abstract:

The ninth edition of Mundo Crítico aims to critically analyse issues related to representations of the world and the relationships between the production and construction of visual and written narratives about the “other(s)”. This focus primarily, though not exclusively, stems from the field of “development support” organisations and journalism.

The edition opens with an “imperfect conversation” between Portuguese journalist António Rodrigues and Guinean activist and community leader Miguel de Barros. They discuss the need to bring forth a different idea of peripheries and alternative narratives, as well as the spectacle often made of cooperation and development.

The Knowledge and Circumstances section begins with Spanish journalist Alfonso Armada’s reflection on our society, drawing on Guy Debord’s warning about the transformation of politics and history into spectacles for consumption. Mozambican journalist Zenaida Machado sheds light on the situation in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique, where the plight of its people remains largely outside the “lens of international journalistic coverage,” overshadowed by the risks to multimillion-dollar investments in the region. From Guinea-Bissau, researcher Sumaila Jaló examines irregular migration through life stories turned into music, aiming to deconstruct prevailing perceptions of this reality. This section also features a reflection on the role of education for development and global citizenship, based on the Sinergias ED project, written by four researchers involved in the initiative. Finally, ACEP President Fátima Proença presents 10 proposals to change how NGOs communicate with society, striving for ethically grounded new narratives and information.

In Ways of Seeing, Mozambican photographer Yassmin Forte, winner of the 2023 Contemporary African Photography Prize, shares a photo essay inspired by her family’s history, beginning on the dance floor in Quelimane, Mozambique. Researcher Livia Apa explores how Senegalese television series contribute to portraying the country, while community leader Paulo Mendes reflects on the diaspora’s role in reshaping narratives about racism and the coloniser/colonised dichotomy.

In Innovations, we highlight an initiative by the Norwegian Fund for Students and Researchers that challenges the fundraising campaigns of international organisations. Meanwhile, in Graphic Echoes, illustrator Amanda Baeza offers a “two-act piece” bridging Chile and Portugal.

Finally, in Showcase, São Toméan audiovisual producer Katya Aragão and Guinean communication specialist Luana Pereira delve into books dedicated to hand-painted advertising in their respective countries, authored by a Polish graphic designer and researcher. They write inspired by and about these works.

The edition concludes with Leonor Teixeira’s review of a recent BOND guide on how NGO images should be used, always with the subjects in mind. The cover is by Guinean visual artist Nú Barreto, who created the piece especially for this edition. Happy reading!

Cite this Journal:

ACEP & CEsA (2023). “Representações do mundo no mundo das representações”. ISEG/CEsA – Centro de Estudos sobre África e Desenvolvimento. Revista Mundo Crítico nº 9 (Dez 2023). ISSN 2184-1926.

Mundo Crítico n.º 8: A cultura no sonho de justiça e de liberdade

Abstract:

In a turbulent world, the wisdom of our role models becomes even more crucial. When we recall the teachings of Amílcar Cabral, we realise how the global is intrinsically local. We hear about personality in terms of stance, behaviour, leadership, and charisma. These qualities emerge in the videos, photos, or recordings that captured the man, in the analyses shared by many, or even in the recognition of a BBC poll that ranked him among the most influential figures in contemporary global history. Yet, it is through reading his writings that young people today can truly grasp the intricate details of his character.

Cabral was not just a poet; he was a dreamer. Not just a guerrilla leader; he was a strategist. Not just a diplomat; he was a mobiliser. Not just a leader; he was a thinker. Not just a teacher; he was a custodian. Too many qualities for a single individual? Yet such is the nature of extraordinary people. They have flaws too; they are human, but they leave an indelible mark for being unique. And for bringing us hope.

In difficult times, we look in the rear-view mirror — a natural reaction for those who navigate an unclear future without clear boundaries or controlled speed. The past seems easier to interpret, though it was not necessarily easier to endure or confront.

After all, what could be harder to change today than what Cabral faced in his youth?

Organising a colonised people from nothing, in a marginalised territory, against an army that once had over 20,000 troops on the frontlines, equipped with significant air support, NATO logistics, and the diplomatic backing of powerful nations. Achieving a transcendental victory: paving the way for the liberation of Guinea and Cape Verde, fostering unity in Angola’s liberation movement, sparking a rebellion that ultimately dismantled fascism in Portugal, and inspiring a new wave of Pan-Africanist and revolutionary thought.

To his exceptional organisational skills, we must add his theoretical contributions. Examples include his conceptualisation of culture’s role in liberation, later expanded in Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed; his transformation of the Marxist reading of class struggle to depict how a subjugated people embody a national class in their anti-colonial struggle—a thesis more sophisticated than the simplistic version of Kwame Nkrumah; his metaphorical interpretation of the ambiguous role of the petty bourgeoisie—today we might say the elites—in the post-colonial period, as agents of alienated practices, a notion further developed psychologically by Frantz Fanon; or his elaboration of a new concept of unity, attainable only through what he called revolutionary praxis—a stance for his time’s movements, distinct from the shallow populism underpinning many of today’s dissenters.

All of this, while speaking to peasants with the same ease he displayed on global platforms. To some, he used examples drawn from their simple daily lives — pots, land, homes, or forests — and to others, he offered the popular wisdom of African proverbs and riddles as a point of connection to that same reality.

Cabral wielded a magic in his words, employing comparisons, metaphors, and, above all, demonstrating through them a deep respect for others — without distinction by rank, gender, or race, as we would phrase it today.

May his life’s example and legacy help us to keep hope alive.

Cite this Journal:

ACEP & CEsA (2022). “A cultura no sonho de justiça e de liberdade”. ISEG/CEsA – Centro de Estudos sobre África e Desenvolvimento. Revista Mundo Crítico nº 8 (Dez 2022). ISSN 2184-1926.

Mundo Crítico n.º 7: Ambiente e desenvolvimento: entre a utopia e a urgência

Abstract:

The overexploitation of the planet’s resources and unsustainable consumption habits have been causing environmental impacts that already constitute a true environmental emergency. One of its most visible manifestations is the unprecedented rise in global temperatures, leading to irreversible damage. In 2021, the international community gathered in Glasgow at COP26, where the climate emergency and the urgent need to phase out fossil fuel exploitation were acknowledged. However, the final agreement fell short of the required ambition.

According to calculations by civil society organizations, the agreed measures will limit warming to 2 degrees Celsius by the end of the century, surpassing the “red lines” of safety. Among the most affected are small island states and many developing countries, which have contributed the least to the current crisis. The upcoming COP27, to be held in Egypt, represents a crucial opportunity for many Africans.

In this edition, we discuss the challenges and emergencies related to development, the environment, and climate. We begin with an “imperfect conversation” between two experts with extensive experience in Africa and Latin America.

The “Knowledge and Circumstances” section includes a reflection by Luís Fazendeiro on “North”/”Global South” inequalities, an analysis by Romy Chevallier and Alex Benkenstein on the EU-AU Summit and climate (in)justice, and Patrícia Magalhães Ferreira’s critique of incoherent policies in these areas. This is followed by insights into experiences in São Tomé and Príncipe (Jorge Carvalho), Mozambique (Mariam Abbas and Natacha Bruna), and Guinea-Bissau (Aissa Regalla de Barros). The section concludes with a reflection on nature and climate by Flora Pereira da Silva.

In “Ways of Seeing”, Portuguese photographer Mário Cruz revisits the Pasig River in the heart of Manila, describing it as “an example of the dangerous path humanity is on.” One of his photos serves as the cover of this issue, as well as the centerfold.

The “Narratives” feature stories by Portuguese journalist Vanessa Rodrigues about the mobilization of rural women in Guinea-Bissau, Mozambican journalist Armando Nhantumbo’s account of how mega-projects are pushing populations into poverty, and environmentalist Sofia Guedes Vaz’s bicycle adventure to COP26.

In “Innovations”, Ana Filipa Oliveira introduces Fakebook-ECO, an initiative aimed at combating environmental disinformation.

Ukrainian illustrator Viktoriya Kurmayeva provides a visual depiction of “Mother Nature,” and in “Escaparate”, we recommend two reports: one on financing (presented by Rita Cavaco) and another on climate (by Tomás Nogueira). Happy reading!

Cite this Journal:

ACEP & CEsA (2022). “Ambiente e desenvolvimento: entre a utopia e a urgência”. ISEG/CEsA – Centro de Estudos sobre África e Desenvolvimento. Revista Mundo Crítico nº 7 (Jul 2022). ISSN 2184-1926.